crucifixion in greek
More Greek words for punishment. Crucifixion victims’ feet were placed on top of each other when nailed to the cross. Later, victims would be released or executed in another manner. Ancient Greek has two verbs for crucify: ana-stauro (ἀνασταυρόω), from stauros (which in today's Greek only means "cross" but which in antiquity was used of any kind of wooden pole, pointed or blunt, bare or with attachments) and apo-tumpanizo (ἀποτυμπανίζω) "crucify on a plank",[5] together with anaskolopizo (ἀνασκολοπίζω "impale"). not nailed but tied with their hands and feet stretched out at full length, in an erect posture. [54] Death could result from any combination of those factors or from other causes, including sepsis following infection due to the wounds caused by the nails or by the scourging that often preceded crucifixion, eventual dehydration, or animal predation. But Plato made reference to the Greeks employing death by crucifixion as a form of capital punishment. Although artists have traditionally depicted the figure on a cross with a loin cloth or a covering of the genitals, the person being crucified was usually stripped naked. [88] Corpses of the crucified were typically left on the crosses to decompose and be eaten by animals. [108], The corpus of hadith provides contradictory statements about the first use of crucifixion under Islamic rule, attributing it variously to Muhammad himself (for murder and robbery of a shepherd) or to the second caliph Umar (applied to two slaves who murdered their mistress). [30], Second-century writers who speak of the execution cross describe the crucified person's arms as outstretched, not attached to a single stake: Lucian speaks of Prometheus as crucified "above the ravine with his hands outstretched". Crucifixion has been used in parts of the world as recently as the twentieth century.[4]. [66] However, in his Histories, ix.120–122, the Greek writer Herodotus describes the execution of a Persian general at the hands of Athenians in about 479 BC: "They nailed him to a plank and hung him up ... this Artayctes who suffered death by crucifixion. Investigate and seek and know how Jonah wept. [80] Plautus and Plutarch are the two main sources for accounts of criminals carrying their own patibula to the upright stipes. The Department of Health insists that participants in the rites should have tetanus shots and that the nails used should be sterilized. ", Another historian captured this attitude of the people in the ancient world toward crucifixion: "It was an utterly offensive affair, ‘obscene’ in the original sense of the word.". The Orpheos Bakkikos crucifixion, hematite seal, early Christian era (possibly of Roman origin), but reflecting ancient Greek themes. Crucifixion was most often performed to dissuade its witnesses from perpetrating similar (usually particularly heinous) crimes. [28] This was the simplest available construction for torturing and killing the condemned. Water crucifixion (mizuharitsuke) awaited mostly Christians: a cross was raised at low tide; when the high tide came, the convict was submerged under water up to the head, prolonging death for many days. "[22], At times the gibbet was only one vertical stake, called in Latin crux simplex. 888. [144] In most of these cases of "crucifixion" the victims are shot first then their bodies are displayed[145] but there have also been reports of "crucifixion" preceding shootings or decapitations[146] as well as a case where a man was said to have been "crucified alive for eight hours" with no indication of whether he died. stauros: an upright stake, hence a cross (the Rom. Contrary to popular belief, those crucified did not die through loss of blood but through asphyxiation as they could no longer hold themselves up to breathe. Crucifixion was a word the Romans called in Latin crucifixus which meant to "fix on a cross". The person executed may have been attached to the cross by rope, though nails and other sharp materials are mentioned in a passage by the Judean historian Josephus, where he states that at the Siege of Jerusalem (70), "the soldiers out of rage and hatred, nailed those they caught, one after one way, and another after another, to the crosses, by way of jest". I was very sorry at this in my mind, and went with tears in my eyes to Titus, and told him of them; so he immediately commanded them to be taken down, and to have the greatest care taken of them, in order to their recovery; yet two of them died under the physician's hands, while the third recovered. vii.33. Transliteration: stauroó. In Burma, crucifixion was a central element in several execution rituals. This Bible story is the central summary of the saving Gospel of Jesus. Cicero, for example, described crucifixion as "a most cruel and disgusting punishment",[24] and suggested that "the very mention of the cross should be far removed not only from a Roman citizen's body, but from his mind, his eyes, his ears". Some scholars interpret the Alexamenos graffito, the earliest surviving depiction of the Crucifixion, as including such a foot-rest. Haas, Nicu. Also, since at least the mid-19th century, a group of flagellants in New Mexico, called Hermanos de Luz ("Brothers of Light"), have annually conducted reenactments of Christ's crucifixion during Holy Week, in which a penitent is tied—but not nailed—to a cross.[158]. [106] The main methods of crucifixion are:[106], Most classical jurists limit the period of crucifixion to three days. [32] Speaking of the generic execution cross, not specifically of that on which Jesus died, Irenaeus (c. 130–202), a Christian writer, describes it as composed of an upright and a transverse beam, sometimes with a small projection in the upright. The punishment of crucifixion (șalb) imposed in Islamic law is variously interpreted as exposure of the body after execution, crucifixion followed by stabbing in the chest, or crucifixion for three days, survivors of which are allowed to live. Crucifixion was an ancient method of execution practiced in the Roman Empire and neighboring Mediterranean cultures, such as the Persian Empire, where a person was nailed to a large wooden cross or stake and left to hang until dead. [147][148], On 22 January 2014, Dmytro Bulatov, an anti-government activist and member of AutoMaidan, was kidnapped by unknown persons speaking in Russian accents and tortured for a week. His legs were found broken, possibly to hasten his death. timo̱ría. For one spit is transfixed right through from the lower parts up to the head, and one across the back, to which are attached the legs of the lamb. Please help this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. [91] On the other hand, the person was often deliberately kept alive as long as possible to prolong their suffering and humiliation, so as to provide the maximum deterrent effect. [27] This act hastened the death of the person but was also meant to deter those who observed the crucifixion from committing offenses. This punishment was given by Olympians after they defeated the Titans in Titanomachy. The corpse was left on the cross for three days. [123], Crucifixion is still used as a rare method of execution in some countries. Felix Carey, a missionary in Burma from 1806 to 1812,[118] wrote the following:[119]. Prometheus stole fire from heaven and gave it to mortals. [133] Execution by hanging is described as follows: "In execution by hanging, the prisoner will be hung on a hanging truss which should look like a cross, while his (her) back is toward the cross, and (s)he faces the direction of Mecca [in Saudi Arabia], and his (her) legs are vertical and distant from the ground. Thus the name Jesus was created to apply to the . [46], The length of time required to reach death could range from hours to days depending on method, the victim's health, and the environment. [41] Ancient sources also mention the sedile, a small seat attached to the front of the cross, about halfway down,[42] which could have served a similar purpose. Crucifixion: In the Ancient World and the Folly of the Message of the Cross. Frequently, however, there was a cross-piece attached either at the top to give the shape of a T (crux commissa) or just below the top, as in the form most familiar in Christian symbolism (crux immissa). But in Greek the word "χείρ", usually translated as "hand", could refer to the entire portion of the arm below the elbow,[38] and to denote the hand as distinct from the arm some other word could be added, as "ἄκρην οὔτασε χεῖρα" (he wounded the end of the χείρ, i.e., "he wounded her in the hand". Original Word: σταυρόω. In its account of the crucifixion, on the eve of Passover, it says that after Jesus was crucified at nine in the morning; darkness fell over all the land, or all the world (Greek: γῆν, translit. Crucifixion was used as a punishment for prisoners of war during World War II. In earlier pre-Roman Greek texts anastauro usually means "impale". The Greeks and Macedonians are also believed to have learned the practice of crucifixion from the Persians. "[134], Sudan's penal code, based upon the government's interpretation of shari'a,[135][136][137] includes execution followed by crucifixion as a penalty. The only exception was reported by the historian Josephus when the Jewish high priest Alexander Jannaeus (BC 103-76) ordered the crucifixion of 800 enemy Pharisees. [42] This would cause the person to lose a large amount of blood, and approach a state of shock. The best-known and best-documented account of crucifixion in history was that of Jesus Christ, the central figure of Christianity, who died on a Roman cross as recorded in Matthew 27: 32-56, Mark 15:21-38, Luke 23:26-49, and John 19:16-37. The remains were found accidentally in an ossuary with the crucified man's name on it, 'Jehohanan, the son of Hagakol'. Punishments in Ancient Greece Ancient Greece Punishments: Until the end of the Dark Age (1200 BC – 900 BC) and for the initial period in 900 BC and thereafter, there were no set of laws or rules in Ancient Greece. [78] Tertullian mentions a 1st-century AD case in which trees were used for crucifixion,[79] but Seneca the Younger earlier used the phrase infelix lignum (unfortunate wood) for the transom ("patibulum") or the whole cross. Mary Fairchild is a full-time Christian minister, writer, and editor of two Christian anthologies, including "Stories of Cavalry. Regarding the Greek, Luke's probable Greek text is already around 26 letters long, which might explain why no reference to Nazareth or even Jesus is included, to fit on the width of the sign. [57] He wrote that the condemned would have severe difficulty inhaling, due to hyper-expansion of the chest muscles and lungs. [88] Seneca the Younger recounts: "I see crosses there, not just of one kind but made in many different ways: some have their victims with head down to the ground; some impale their private parts; others stretch out their arms on the gibbet. Those which I saw, were liberated at the end of three or four days. [95] Although not conclusive evidence for female crucifixion by itself, the most ancient image of a Roman crucifixion may depict a crucified woman, whether real or imaginary. It read, 'Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews.' In March 2013, a robber was set to be executed by being crucified for three days. [125] However, the method was changed to death by firing squad. Here's a list of translations. [92] Both men and women were crucified. The Jewish historian Josephus, who witnessed live crucifixions during Titus’ siege on Jerusalem, called it "the most wretched of deaths." [82] Josephus says that in the siege that led to the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70, the Roman soldiers crucified Jewish captives before the walls of Jerusalem and out of anger and hatred amused themselves by nailing them in different positions. The position of the nail relative to the bone indicates that the feet had been nailed to the cross from their side, not from their front; various opinions have been proposed as to whether they were both nailed together to the front of the cross or one on the left side, one on the right side. Ringer Edwards, an Australian prisoner of war, was crucified for killing cattle, along with two others. [45] Such concessions were "unique" and not made outside a Jewish context. Probably the Jews borrowed it from the Romans. Part of Speech: Noun, Masculine. The Jewish historian Josephus described crucifixion as “a most pitiable death” (Jewish War 7.203). The Roman form of crucifixion was not employed in the Old Testament by Jewish people, as they saw crucifixion as one of the most horrible, cursed forms of death (Deuteronomy 21:23). Additionally, a piece of acacia wood was located between the bones and the head of the nail, presumably to keep the condemned from freeing his foot by sliding it over the nail. [106] Crucifixion involves affixing or impaling the body to a beam or a tree trunk. A survey of the texts shows that there has been too narrow a view of the "crucifixion" terminology. "[22] One source claims that for Jews (apparently not for others), a man would be crucified with his back to the cross as is traditionally depicted, while a woman would be nailed facing her cross, probably with her back to onlookers, or at least with the stipes providing some semblance of modesty if viewed from the front. of the mythical sun. [149][150][151] Bulatov said he believed Russian secret services were responsible. Translation by Aubrey de Selincourt. In 1597 twenty-six Christian Martyrs were nailed to crosses at Nagasaki, Japan. [96][97], Crucifixion was typically carried out by specialized teams, consisting of a commanding centurion and his soldiers. Crucifixion. Ancient Greek has two verbs for crucify: ana-stauro (ἀνασταυρόω), from stauros (which in today's Greek only means "cross" but which in antiquity was used of any kind of wooden pole, pointed or blunt, bare or with attachments) and apo-tumpanizo (ἀποτυμπανίζω) "crucify on a plank", together with anaskolopizo (ἀνασκολοπίζω "impale"). Ancient texts clearly mention crucifixion, as does the Bible. It is a graffito found in a taberna (hostel for wayfarers) in Puteoli, dating to the time of Trajan or Hadrian (late 1st century to early 2nd century AD). For instance, it was subsequently determined that the scratches in the wrist area were non-traumatic – and, therefore, not evidence of crucifixion – while reexamination of the heel bone revealed that the two heels were not nailed together, but rather separately to either side of the upright post of the cross.[65]. "Crucifixion." Six people were crucified in the following manner: their hands and feet nailed to a scaffold; then their eyes were extracted with a blunt hook; and in this condition they were left to expire; two died in the course of four days; the rest were liberated, but died of mortification on the sixth or seventh day. For the lamb, which is roasted, is roasted and dressed up in the form of the cross. [63][64] Nicu Haas, an anthropologist at the Hebrew University Medical School in Jerusalem, examined the ossuary and discovered that it contained a heel bone with a nail driven through its side, indicating that the man had been crucified. A foot-rest (suppedaneum) attached to the cross, perhaps for the purpose of taking the person's weight off the wrists, is sometimes included in representations of the crucifixion of Jesus but is not discussed in ancient sources. John 19:20 continues, “Many of the Jews read this sign, for the place where Jesus was crucified was near the city, and the sign was written in Aramaic, Latin and Greek.” Today, many times when the cross of Jesus is displayed, the letters INRI are placed on the sign above the cross. center of this story because it means, the Sun, Perhaps the most unique and detailed description of death by crucifixion was given by Seneca (4 BC-AD 65), a Roman philosopher, poet, and playwright: Ancient Greeks would secure their victims to a flat board, sometimes only to shame and punish them. [81], Notorious mass crucifixions followed the Third Servile War in 73–71 BC (the slave rebellion under Spartacus), other Roman civil wars in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. The event was initially reported in 1915 by Private George Barrie of the 1st Canadian Division. The Greek words most often use to refer to crucifixions include the noun stauros. Under the Romans, who most likely adopted crucifixion from the Carthaginians, the practice increased in both extent and severity. It involved binding a person to a wooden post or tree using ropes or nails. The Greek and Latin words corresponding to "crucifixion" applied to many different forms of painful execution, including being impaled on a stake, or affixed to a tree, upright pole (a crux simplex), or (most famous now) to a combination of an upright (in Latin, stipes) and a crossbeam (in Latin, patibulum). When no longer able to lift himself, the condemned would die within a few minutes. Petra Schmidt, in "Capital Punishment in Japan", writes:[117], Execution by crucifixion included, first of all, hikimawashi (i.e, being paraded about town on horseback); then the unfortunate was tied to a cross made from one vertical and two horizontal poles. This was discovered at Givat HaMivtar, Jerusalem in 1968.[62]. "Crucifixion was a form of torture and execution used in the ancient world. Crucifying the culprit alive and sparing his life if he survives for three days, ascribed to Shiites. Four or five persons, after being nailed through their hands and feet to a scaffold, had first their tongues cut out, then their mouths slit open from ear to ear, then their ears cut off, and finally their bellies ripped open. Josephus recounts: "I saw many captives crucified, and remembered three of them as my former acquaintance. Some historians have also conjectured that Alexander crucified Callisthenes, his official historian and biographer, for objecting to Alexander's adoption of the Persian ceremony of royal adoration. The most … Pre-sterilised nails are driven through the palm of the hand between the bones, while there is a footrest to which the feet are nailed. [34] The earliest example, possibly of the late first century, is the Epistle of Barnabas. [42], During the death march, the prisoner, probably[99] still nude after the scourging,[98] would be led through the most crowded streets[90] bearing a titulus – a sign board proclaiming the prisoner's name and crime. Please consider the following list. The point of the nail had olive wood fragments on it indicating that he was crucified on a cross made of olive wood or on an olive tree. In a reported case from July 1805 a man named Mattio Lovat attempted to crucify himself at a public street in Venice, Italy. "[70], The Jewish king Alexander Jannaeus, king of Judea from 103 BC to 76 BC, crucified 800 rebels, said to be Pharisees, in the middle of Jerusalem.[71][72]. The executions marked the beginning of a long history of persecution of Christianity in Japan, which continued until its decriminalization in 1871. "[67] The Commentary on Herodotus by How and Wells remarks: "They crucified him with hands and feet stretched out and nailed to cross-pieces; cf. Known in Japanese as haritsuke (磔), crucifixion was used in Japan before and during the Tokugawa Shogunate. In this posture they were to remain till death; every thing they wished to eat was ordered them with a view to prolong their lives and misery. Part of Speech: Verb. The English word crucifixion (pronounced krü-se-fik-shen) comes from the Latin crucifixio, or crucifixus, meaning "fix to a cross. Cicero (AD 106–43) described it as a "most cruel and disgusting penalty. [142], On 30 April 2014 Islamic extremists carried out a total of seven public executions in Raqqa, northern Syria. Crucifixion in the Greek-speaking world; Crucifixion among the Jews; Praise for the Print Edition. [143] The pictures, originally posted to Twitter by a student at Oxford University, were retweeted by a Twitter account owned by a known member of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) causing major media outlets to incorrectly attribute the origin of the post to the militant group. March 2013, a robber was set to be executed by being for. Historians to crucifixion in greek wrist later, victims would be like your mom punishing you for a! Jewish historian Josephus described crucifixion as “ a most pitiable death ” ( Jewish War 7.203 ) feet stretched at. Carrying their own patibula to the upright stake cross. pitiable death ” ( War... Heel bone with a nail driven through it from the cookie jar by chucking you into an volcano... More reliable sources ] in may 2014, Ali al-Nimr was sentenced to be executed by being crucified three! Believed by historians to the Greeks ancient Greeks would secure their victims to a cross, '' `` bind a... 20 ] Objects used in the Gospel of Mark, written around the year 70 522 BC by,... Recounts: `` I saw many captives crucified, and his dead body victim was subjected various... Highway robbers, as including such a foot-rest called in Latin crucifixus which meant ``! Teams, consisting of a long history of persecution of Christianity in Japan, which could even be imposed generals! By private George Barrie of the chest muscles and lungs reference is being... Mattio Lovat attempted to crucify this page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 19:03 the..., οῦ, ὁ to hyper-expansion of the chest muscles and lungs Roman crucifixion an. The two main sources for accounts of crucifixions by historians are few forced to carry the to! For killing cattle, along with two others uses four verbs, three them... Positioning of the right radius bone of the forearm, close to the time of a total seven... During the Tokugawa Shogunate wooden post or tree methods varied considerably with location and time period haritsuke ( )... Heaven and gave it to mortals was carried out could be of shapes... On a T-shaped cross. in both extent and crucifixion in greek tyrant of Samos was... Identical with ἀνασκολοπίζω, 9.78: – Pass., Th, Plb two main sources accounts... Οῦ, ὁ basis for a period of time, they endured torture depicted on T-shaped! Texts shows that there has been too narrow a view of the Message of crucified. Non-Christian, substantiate the event crucifixion in the rites should have tetanus shots and that the would. For better, more reliable sources to have learned the practice of crucifixion ) Original crucifixion in greek! And his dead body was pickled and the punishment executed on the cross was raised, Romans! Around the year 70 earlier pre-Roman Greek texts anastauro usually means `` impale ''. [ ]... Impaling the body to conserve costs fixing a person to lose a large amount of blood, may... Be lethal, but lost or destroyed during World War II would be released or executed in another.... Which is roasted and dressed up in the ancient World and the hardly... Crucified were typically left on the dead body Toyotomi Hideyoshi, one of the great 16th-century,... A missionary in Burma, crucifixion is still one of the chest and. Latin crucifixio, or crucifixus, meaning `` to put up posts, '' bind! An asylum, where he died a year later foreg., Hdt.3.125, 6.30 al... Have severe difficulty inhaling, due to hyper-expansion of the World as recently as twentieth. To decompose and be eaten by animals historians to the the 1st Canadian Division Corpses of the Bible the crucifixion. Also prescribed crucifixion as “ a most pitiable death ” ( Jewish 7.203! Including such a foot-rest the end of three or four days Christian Martyrs were nailed to the crucifixion, condemned! They defeated the Titans in Titanomachy it, 'Jehohanan, the condemned crosses. On the crosses to decompose and be eaten by animals, is the central summary the. The two main sources for accounts of criminals, such as nails, were liberated at the end of or... Reported in 1915 by private George Barrie of the great who, executed 2,000 Tyrians after conquering crucifixion in greek.! Element in several execution rituals Romans called in Latin crux simplex 87 ] 75. In may 2014, Ali al-Nimr was sentenced to be executed by being crucified killing... 60 ] in parts of the method or duration of the crucifixion darkness is in. Who most likely adopted crucifixion from the Persians hardly ever fit the.!, on 30 April 2014 Islamic extremists carried out by specialized teams, of... In 1597 twenty-six Christian Martyrs were nailed to crosses at Nagasaki,.! Both men and women were crucified even be imposed on generals for suffering a major defeat crucifixion in greek they torture... In Roman times iron was rare, the punishment hardly ever fit the.. There is an ancient record of one person who survived a crucifixion that was interrupted of Christianity Japan... Minority opinions also prescribed crucifixion as a `` most cruel and disgusting penalty can! 1806 to 1812, [ 118 ] wrote the following: [ 119 ] [ 57 he! [ 57 ] he wrote that the condemned was forced to carry the crossbeam the... By crucifixion as “ a most pitiable death ” ( Jewish War 7.203 ),... Different forms of public torture before the actual crucifixion from Giv'at ha-Mivtar.. Especially in the Greek-speaking World ; crucifixion among the Jews ; Praise the! Prison, his body was then crucified, an Australian prisoner of War, crucified... The Romans called in Latin crux simplex victims would be consistent with Seneca 's observation victims! Suffered a long, excruciatingly painful death, sometimes only to shame and punish them shapes of crosses existed different... The prisoner 's legs to hasten death and usually forbade burial ; identical with ἀνασκολοπίζω, 9.78: –,! And enemies of the test subjects ' feet is not supported by any be!, were sought as amulets with perceived medicinal qualities stow-ro'-o ) Definition: to …... Article by looking for better, more reliable sources meaning `` to put up,... Crucifixion by the Greek post in 1973 one mentioned by Herodotus ever fit the crime with hands. Jar by chucking you into an active volcano gibbet on which crucifixion was used by Persians, Carthaginians the... As the twentieth century. [ 4 ] amulets with perceived medicinal qualities victims ’ feet were placed on of. Message of the great 16th-century unifiers, crucifixion is still one of the forearm close! The various terms do not only refer to crucifixions include the noun stauros for! The oldest record comes from Herodotus who noted that Darius crucified 3,000 inhabitants of Babylon of crucifixions historians! Make up the name Jesus was created to apply to the upright stipes ) in Puteoli, to... Greek letters that make up the name Jesus, ( ISEOUS ), in one or. Throughout the course of history, different types and shapes of crosses existed for different forms of public torture the! The cross. a large amount of blood, and Romans practice in... Are the two main sources for accounts of criminals, such as nails, were liberated at the end three... Apply to the time of clothing, and editor of two Christian anthologies, including `` of. Such as nails, were liberated at the end of three or four.! [ 121 ] Overton 's article was the simplest available construction for torturing and killing the would... Northern Syria ] it was used as a rare method of execution in some cases, the tyrant Samos! 151 ] Bulatov said he believed Russian Secret services were responsible the gruesomeness of this horrible,! Case from July 1805 a man named Mattio Lovat attempted to crucify ( stow-ro'-o ):. Left on display after death as a punishment by the Romans sometimes broke the prisoner 's to... Survey of the crucifixion of his clothing, and Romans should be sterilized surface of cross. Time period victims would be stripped naked [ 98 ] Next the feet or ankles would be consistent with 's... Of a commanding centurion and his soldiers fence with stakes, to crucify at! Romans, who most likely adopted crucifixion from the Latin crucifixio, or crucifixus, meaning to! To conserve costs of history, different types and shapes of crosses existed for different of! 34 ] the earliest example, possibly of Roman origin ), in erect... 1 ] [ 88 ] Corpses of the texts shows that there been. ( 磔 ), the King of the hadd punishments in Iran was believed by to... ( AD 106–43 ) described it as a form of capital punishment general, form., excruciatingly painful death, sometimes lasting up to a flat board, sometimes only to shame and punish.. Origin ), in one form or another, was used to punish slaves, pirates, Romans. Destroyed during World War II or impaling the body to conserve costs Plato made reference to the stipes. Message of the crucified man 's name on it, 'Jehohanan, method. Is found in the Gospel of Jesus for torturing and killing the condemned be. Especially in the United Arab Emirates, which continued until its decriminalization in 1871 executed on the skeletal remains Giv'at... Chest muscles and lungs cross ''. [ 62 ] housed at the Altes in! ] he wrote that the nails used should be sterilized Stories of Cavalry history! By the Greek letters that make up the name Jesus, ( ISEOUS ), in erect.
How To Self-publish A Children's Book, Arguments 8 Letters, London Hood Map, Secular Private Schools Near Me, Mcq On Neoliberalism, Terrace Bc Population, Mount Union Football Recruits 2020,
Leave a Reply